11.1 The Great War Begins

Read the following section and answer the questions that follow. The Great War Begins
Terms, People, and Places
entente
militarism
Alsace and Lorraine
ultimatum
mobilize
Neutrality


By 1914, Europe had enjoyed a century of relative peace. Idealists hoped for a permanent end to the scourge of war. International events, such as the first modern Olympic games in 1896 and the
First Universal Peace Conference in 1899, were steps toward keeping the peace. “The future belongs to peace,” said French economist Frédéric Passy (pa SEE).
Not everyone was so hopeful. “I shall not live to see the Great War,” warned German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, “but you will see it, and it will start in the east.” It was Bismarck’s prediction, rather than Passy’s, that came true.

Alliances Draw Lines
While peace efforts were under way, powerful forces were pushing Europe towards war. Spurred by distrust of one another, the great powers of Europe—Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Britain,
France, and Russia—signed treaties pledging to defend one another. These alliances were intended to promote peace by creating powerful combinations that no one would dare attack. In the end, they
had the opposite effect. Two huge alliances emerged.

The Triple Alliance 
The first of these alliances had its origins in Bismarck’s day. He knew that France longed to avenge its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. Sure that France would not attack Germany without help, Bismarck signed treaties with other powers. In 1882, he formed the Triple Alliance with Italy and Austria-Hungary. In 1914, when war did erupt, Germany and Austria-Hungary fought
on the same side. They became known as the Central Powers.

The Triple Entente 
A rival bloc took shape in 1893, when France and Russia formed an alliance. In 1904, France and Britain signed an entente (ahn TAHNT), a nonbinding agreement to follow common policies. Though
not as formal as a treaty, the entente led to close military and diplomatic ties. Britain later signed a similar agreement with Russia. When war began, these powers became known as the Allies.
Other alliances also formed. Germany signed a treaty with the Otto-
man empire. Britain drew close to Japan.

Rivalries and Nationalism Increase Tension
The European powers jealously guarded their status. They competed for positions in many areas. Two old empires, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey, struggled to survive in an age of nationalism.

Competition 
Economic rivalries helped sour the international atmosphere. Germany, the newest of the great powers, was growing into an economic and military powerhouse. Britain felt threatened by its rapid economic growth. Germany, in turn, thought the other great powers did not give it enough respect. Germany also feared that when Russia caught up to other industrialized nations, its huge population and vast supply of natural resources would make it an unbeatable competitor.
Overseas rivalries also divided European nations. In 1905 and again in 1911, competition for colonies brought France and Germany to the brink of war in Morocco, then under France’s influence. Although diplomats kept the peace, Germany did gain some territory in central Africa. As a result of the two Moroccan crises, Britain and France strengthened their ties against Germany.
With international tensions on the rise, the great powers began to build up their armies and navies. The fiercest competition was the naval rivalry between Britain and Germany. To protect its vast overseas empire, Britain had built the world’s most respected navy. As Germany began acquiring overseas colonies, it began to build up its own navy. Suspicious of Germany’s motives, Britain in turn increased naval spending. Sensational journalism dramatized the arms race and stirred national
public opinion against rival countries.
The rise of militarism, or the glorification of the military, also helped
to feed the arms race. The militarist tradition painted war in romantic
colors. Young men dreamed of blaring trumpets and dashing cavalry
charges—not at all the sort of conflict they would soon face.

Nationalism 
Aggressive nationalism also caused tension. Nationalism was strong in both Germany and France. Germans were proud of their new empire’s military power and industrial leadership. The French were bitter about their 1871 defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and yearned to recover the lost border province of Alsace and Lorraine.
In Eastern Europe, Russia sponsored a powerful form of nationalism called Pan-Slavism. It held that all Slavic peoples shared a common nationality. As the largest Slavic country, Russia felt that it had a duty to lead and defend all Slavs. By 1914, it stood ready to support Serbia, a proud young nation that dreamed of creating a South Slav state.
Two old multinational empires particularly feared rising nationalism. Austria-Hungary worried that nationalism might foster rebellion among the many minority populations within its empire. Ottoman Turkey felt threatened by nearby new nations, such as Serbia. If realized, Serbia’s
 dream of a South Slav state could take territory away from both Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
In 1912, several Balkan states attacked Turkey and succeeded in taking a large area of land away from Turkish control. The next year, the Balkan states fought among themselves over the spoils of war. These brief but bloody Balkan wars raised tensions to a fever pitch. By 1914, the Balkans were called the “powder keg of Europe”—a barrel of gunpowder that a tiny spark might cause to explode.

The Powder Keg Ignites

As Bismarck had predicted, the Great War began in Eastern Europe. A regional conflict between tiny Serbia and the huge empire of Austria-Hungary grew rapidly into a general war.
 Assassination in Sarajevo The crisis began when Archduke Francis  Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary announced that he would visit Sarajevo (sa ruh YAY voh), the capital of Bosnia. Francis Ferdinand was the nephew and heir of the aging Austrian emperor, Francis Joseph. At the time of his visit, Bosnia was under the rule of Austria-Hungary. But it was also the home of many Serbs and other Slavs. News of the royal visit angered many Serbian nationalists. They viewed the Austrians as foreign oppressors. Some members of Unity or Death, a Serbian terrorist group commonly known as the Black Hand, vowed to take action.
The archduke ignored warnings of anti-Austrian unrest in Sarajevo. On June 28, 1914, he and his wife, Sophie, rode through Sarajevo in an open car. As the car passed by, a conspirator named Gavrilo Princip (GAV ree loh PREEN tseep) seized his chance and fired twice into the car. Moments later, the archduke and his wife were dead.

Austria Strikes Back 
The news of the assassination shocked Francis Joseph. Still, he was reluctant to go to war. The government in Vienna, however, saw the incident as an excuse to crush Serbia. In Berlin, Kaiser
William II was horrified at the assassination of his ally’s heir. He wrote to Francis Joseph, advising him to take a firm stand toward Serbia. Instead of urging restraint, Germany gave Austria a “blank check,” or a promise of unconditional support no matter what the cost.
Austria sent Serbia a sweeping ultimatum, or final set of demands. To avoid war, said the ultimatum, Serbia must end all anti-Austrian agitation and punish any Serbian official involved in the murder plot. It must even let Austria join in the investigation. Serbia agreed to most, but not all, of the terms of Austria’s ultimatum. This partial refusal gave Austria the opportunity it was seeking. On July 28, 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia.

Alliances Kick In

The war between Austria and Serbia might have been another “summer war,” like most European wars of the previous century. However, the carefully planned alliances soon drew the great powers deeper into conflict.

Russia and France Back Serbia 
After Austria’s declaration of war, Serbia turned to its ally, Russia, the champion of Slavic nations. From St. Petersburg, Nicholas II telegraphed William II. The tsar asked the Kaiser to urge Austria to soften its demands. When this plea failed, Russia began to mobilize or prepare its military forces for war. On August 1, Germany responded by declaring war on Russia. 
Russia, in turn, appealed to its ally France. In Paris, nationalists saw a chance to avenge France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. Though French leaders had some doubts, they gave Russia the same kind of backing Germany offered to Austria. When Germany demanded that France keep out of the conflict, and France refused. Germany then declared war on France.


Germany Invades Belgium 
By early August, the battle lines were hardening. Italy and Britain still remained uncommitted. Italy chose to stay neutral for the time being. Neutrality is a policy of supporting neither side in a war. Britain had to decide quickly whether or not to support its ally France. Then, Germany’s war plans suddenly made the decision for Britain.
A cornerstone of Germany’s military policy was a plan developed years
earlier by General Alfred von Schlieffen (SHLEE fun). Germany’s location presented the possibility of a two-front war—against France in the west and Russia to the east. The Schlieffen Plan was designed to avoid this problem. Schlieffen reasoned that Germany should move against France first because Russia’s lumbering military would be slow to mobilize.
However, Germany had to defeat France quickly so that its armies could then turn around and fight Russia. 
To ensure a swift victory in the west, the Schlieffen Plan required German armies to march through neutral Belgium and then swing south behind French lines. The goal was to encircle and crush France’s army. The Germans embarked on the plan by invading Belgium on August 3.
However, Britain and other European powers had signed a treaty guaranteeing Belgian neutrality. Outraged by the invasion of Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany on August 4.
Once the machinery of war was set in motion, it seemed impossible to stop. Military leaders insisted that they must mobilize their forces immediately to accomplish their military goals. These military timetables made it impossible for political leaders to negotiate instead of fight.

Reaction to the War

Before the war, many countries were troubled by domestic problems. For example, Britain struggled with labor unrest and the issue of home rule in Ireland. Russia wrestled with problems stirred up by the Revolution of 1905. The outbreak of war brought temporary relief from these internal divisions.
A renewed sense of patriotism united countries. Governments on both sides emphasized that their countries were fighting for justice and a better world. Young men rushed to enlist, cheered on by women and their elders. Now that war had come at last, it seemed an exciting adventure.
British diplomat Edward Grey was less optimistic. As armies began to move, he predicted, “The lamps are going out all over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”

(vocab) entente

(vocab) militarism

(vocab) Alsace and Lorraine

(vocab) ultimatum

(vocab) mobilize

(vocab) Neutrality

(checkpoint) How did international competition and nationalism increase tensions in Europe?

(checkpoint) What happened because of the assassination of Francis Ferdinand and his wife?

(checkpoint) How did the alliance system deepen the original conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia into a general war?

(assessment) Analyze Information Why did European nations form alliances?

(assessment) Identify Central Issues Why might the Balkans be called the “powder keg of Europe”?

(assessment) Recognize Causes How did Austria’s government react to the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand?

(assessment) Determine Relevance What role did geography play in the outbreak of World War I?

(objectives) Describe how international rivalries and nationalism pushed Europe toward war.

(objective)  Explain how the assassination in Sarajevo led to the start of World War I.

(objective) Analyze the causes and effects of the European alliance system.