11.4 Making of Peace

Read the Section and answer the questions that follow. Making the Peace

Terms, People, and Places
pandemic
reparations
radicals
collective security
Mandate

Just weeks after the war ended, President Wilson boarded a steamship bound for France. He had decided to go in person to Paris, where Allied leaders would make the peace. Wilson was certain that he could solve the problems of old Europe. “Tell me what is right,” Wilson urged his advisors, “and I’ll fight for it.” Sadly, it would not be that easy. Europe was a shattered continent. Its problems, and those of the world, would not be solved at the Paris Peace Conference, or for many years afterward.

The Costs of War

The human and material costs of the war were staggering. Millions of soldiers were dead, and even more wounded. The devastation was made even worse in 1918 by a deadly pandemic of influenza. A pandemic is the spread of a disease across a large area—in this case, the whole world. In just a few months, the flu killed more than 20 million people worldwide.

The Financial Toll 
In battle zones from France to Russia, homes, farms, factories, roads, and churches had been shelled into rubble. People had fled these areas as refugees. Now they had to return and
start to rebuild. The costs of reconstruction and paying off huge war debts would burden an already battered world. 
Shaken and disillusioned, people everywhere felt bitter about the
war. The Allies blamed the conflict on their defeated foes and insisted that the losers make reparations, or payments for war damage. The stunned Central Powers, who had viewed the armistice as a cease-fire rather than a surrender, looked for scapegoats on whom they could blame
their defeat.

Political Turmoil 
Under the stress of war, governments had collapsed in Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman empire. Political radicals, or people who wanted to make extreme changes, dreamed of
building a new social order from the chaos. Conservatives warned against the spread of bolshevism, or communism, as it was soon called. 
Unrest also swept through Europe’s colonial empires. African and Asian soldiers had discovered that the imperial powers were not as invincible as they seemed. Colonial troops returned home with a more cynical view of Europeans and renewed hopes for independence.

The Cost of War
The war ended in 1918, but its effects would be felt for decades to come. More than 8.5 million men had died in battle. Twice that number had been wounded, many of them disabled for life. Historians estimate that from 6 to 13 million civilians also lost their lives as a result of the war. Many of the combatant nations had thrown all of their resources into the fight, leaving them little with which to rebuild. Below an American nurse tends to soldiers in France in 1918.

Central Powers:
Germany - 16% Dead, 38% wounded and missing, 10% taken prisoner, 36% unharmed
Austria-Hungary - 15% Dead, 46% wounded and missing, 28% taken prisoner, 11% unharmed

Allied Powers:
British - 10% Dead, 23% wounded and missing, 2% taken prisoner, 65% unharmed
France - 16% Dead, 51% wounded and missing, 6% taken prisoner, 27% unharmed
Russia - 14% Dead, 41% wounded and missing, 21% taken prisoner, 24% unharmed
USA - 3% Dead, 5% wounded and missing, 0.1% taken prisoner, 91.9% unharmed

Financial Costs of War In Billions…
British Empire - 5.5, France - 4.75, Russia - 2.5, United States 3.15 , Germany - 6 , Austria-Hungary - 2.15 

The Paris Peace Conference

The victorious Allies met at the Paris Peace Conference to discuss the fate of Europe, the former Ottoman empire, and various colonies around the world. The Central Powers and Russia were not allowed to take part in the negotiations.

Conflicting Goals 
Wilson was one of three strong leaders who dominated the Paris Peace Conference. He was a dedicated reformer and at times was so stubbornly convinced that he was right that he could be
hard to work with. Wilson urged for “peace without victory” based on the Fourteen Points. 
Two other Allied leaders at the peace conference had different aims. British prime minister David Lloyd George had promised to build a post-war Britain “fit for heroes”—a goal that would cost money. The chief goal of the French leader, Georges Clemenceau (KLEM un soh), was to weaken Germany so that it could never again threaten France. “Mr. Wilson bores me with his Fourteen Points,” complained Clemenceau. “Why, God Almighty has only ten!”


Problems With the Peace
Crowds of other representatives circled around the “Big Three” with their own demands and interests. The Italian prime minister, Vittorio Orlando (awr LAN doh), insisted that the Allies
honor their secret agreement to give former Austro-Hungarian lands to Italy. Such secret agreements violated the principle of self-determination.
Self-determination posed other problems. Many people who had been ruled by Russia, Austria-Hungary, or the Ottoman empire now demanded national states of their own. The territories claimed by these peoples often overlapped, so it was impossible to satisfy them all. Some ethnic groups became unwanted minorities in newly created states.
Wilson had to compromise on his Fourteen Points. However, he stood firm on his goal of creating an international League of Nations. The League would be based on the idea of collective security, a system in which a group of nations acts as one to preserve the peace of all. Wilson
felt sure that the League could correct any mistakes made in Paris.

The Treaty of Versailles

In June 1919, the Allies ordered representatives of the new German Republic to sign the treaty they had drawn up at the palace of Versailles (vur SY) outside Paris. The German delegates were horrified. The treaty forced Germany to assume full blame for causing the war. It also imposed huge reparations that would burden an already damaged German economy. The reparations covered not only the destruction caused by the war, but also pensions for millions of Allied soldiers or their widows and families. The total cost of German reparations would later be calculated at $30 billion (the equivalent of about $2.7 trillion today).
Other parts of the treaty were aimed at weakening Germany. The treaty severely limited the size of the once-feared German military. It returned Alsace and Lorraine to France, removed hundreds of square miles of territory from western and eastern Germany, and stripped Germany of its overseas colonies. The treaty compelled many Germans to leave the homes they had made in Russia, Poland, Alsace-Lorraine, and the German colonies to return to Germany or Austria.
The Germans signed because they had no choice. However, German resentment of the Treaty of Versailles would poison the international climate for 20 years. It would help spark an even deadlier world war in the years to come.

French War Losses 
France did not suffer the greatest number of dead and wounded during the war. No other nation, however, suffered a greater percentage of its population dead or wounded. Of Frenchmen who were between 20 and 32 years old at the start of the war, more than half were killed. Property damage in northern France, where much of the fighting took place, included 300,000 houses destroyed and 20,000 factories or workshops ruined or badly damaged. Some 1,360,000 head of livestock
were killed or confiscated. Bombing had ravaged thousands of acres of forest and farmland. This was
the country that Georges Clemenceau represented at the Paris Peace Conference.

Outcome of the Peace Settlements
The Allies drew up separate treaties with the other Central Powers. Like the Treaty of Versailles, these treaties left widespread dissatisfaction. Dis-contented nations waited for a chance to revise the peace settlements in their favor.

Self-Determination in Eastern Europe 
Where the German, Austrian, and Russian empires had once ruled, a band of new nations
emerged. Poland became an independent nation after more than 100 years of foreign rule. The Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia fought for and achieved independence.
Three new republics—Czechoslovakia, Austria, and Hungary—rose in the old Hapsburg heartland. In the Balkans, the peacemakers created a new South Slav state, Yugoslavia, dominated by Serbia.

The Mandate System 
European colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific had looked to the Paris Peace Conference with high hopes. Colonial leaders expected that the peace would bring new respect and an end to imperial rule. However, the leaders at Paris applied self-determination only to parts of Europe. Outside Europe, the victorious Allies added to their overseas empires. The treaties created a system of
mandates, territories administered by Western powers. Britain and France gained mandates over German colonies in Africa. Japan and Australia were given mandates over some Pacific islands. The treaties handled lands that used to be part of the Ottoman Empire as if they were colonies, too.
In theory, mandates were to be held until they were able to stand alone. In practice, they became European colonies. From Africa to the Middle East and across Asia, people felt betrayed by the peacemakers.

The League of Nations Offers Hope 
The Paris Peace Conference did offer one beacon of hope with the establishment of the League of Nations. More than 40 nations joined the League. They agreed to negotiate disputes rather than resort to war and to take common action against any aggressor state.
Wilson’s dream had become a reality, or so he thought. On his return from Paris, Wilson faced resistance from his own Senate. Some Republican senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, wanted to restrict the treaty so that the United States would not be obligated to fight in future wars. Lodge’s reservations echoed the feelings of many Americans. Wilson would not accept Lodge’s compromises.
In the end, the Senate refused to ratify the treaty, and the United States never joined the League.
The loss of the United States weakened the League’s power. In addition, the League had no power outside of its member states. As time soon revealed, the League could not prevent war. Still, it was a first step toward something genuinely new—an international organization dedicated to maintaining peace and advancing the interests of all peoples.

(vocab) pandemic

(vocab) reparations

(vocab) radicals

(vocab) collective security

(vocab) mandate

(checkpoint) What were some of the human, economic, and political costs of the war?

(checkpoint) Why were the German delegates surprised when they read the treaty?

(checkpoint) Why did the League of Nations fail to accomplish Wilson’s dreams?

(assessment) Describe conditions in Europe after World War I.

(assessment) How did the peace treaties both follow and violate the principle of self-determination?

(assessment) Wilson’s closest advisor wrote of the Paris Peace Conference, “There is much to approve and much to regret.” What do you think he might have approved? What might he have regretted?

(objectives) Analyze the costs of World War I.

(objectives) Describe the issues faced by the delegates to the Paris Peace Conference.

(objectives) Explain why many people were dissatisfied with the Treaty of Versailles and other peace
settlements.