EBQ: Exploring the Impact of Family Dog Ownership on Social-Emotional Well-being

This question has three parts: Part A, Part B, and Part C.  
Use the three sources provided to answer all parts of the question.

For Part B and Part C, you must cite the source that you used to answer the question.
You can do this in two different ways:

Parenthetical Citation:
For example: “...(Source A)


Embedded Citation:
For example: “According to Source A…”

Write the response to each part of the question in complete sentences.  
Use appropriate psychological terminology.

Propose a specific and defensible claim based in psychological science that responds to the question.

1) Support your claim using at least one piece of specific and relevant evidence from one of the sources.

2) Explain how the evidence from Part B (i) supports your claim using a psychological perspective, theory, concept, or research finding learned in AP Psychology.

3) Support your claim using an additional piece of specific and relevant evidence from a different source than the one that was used in Part B (i).

4) Explain how the evidence from Part C (i) supports your claim using a different psychological perspective, theory, concept, or research finding learned in AP Psychology than the one used in Part B (ii)


Source A

Introduction
The impact of pet ownership on children's physical and social-emotional development has gained attention, particularly regarding the benefits of active physical engagement with family pets. Physical inactivity and increasing sedentary behaviors in childhood are major health issues. Regular physical activity provides children with health and developmental benefits, including healthy weight, improved bone health, cardiovascular fitness, and enhanced motor, cogni-tive, social, and emotional development. Approximately 42% of preschool-aged children in the United States live in households with dogs, suggesting a substantial portion of the population potentially benefiting from this relationship.

This study aims to investigate if dog ownership, family dog walking, active play with the dog, are associated with better physical and social-emotional development in young children. 
Participants
The study surveyed 1646 parents with preschool-aged children to explore the relationship between dog ownership and children's development. The participants included children aged 2–5 years from diverse socio-economic backgrounds residing in the Perth metropolitan area, Western Australia. Data from various questionnaires completed by the participants provided information on maternal and paternal demographics, child characteristics, and family dog ownership status at different time points during the child's early years.
Methods
Data collection involved parent surveys, which assessed family dog ownership, frequency of family dog walking, frequency of active play with the family dog, and children's social-emotional development using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ).  Active play and family dog walking were measured by parent-reported frequency (“never/rarely,” less than once/week, 1–2 times/week,3–4 times/week, 5–6 times/week, daily) of playing with the family dog and walking with the family dog in a typical week.Both variables were collapsed into dichotomous variables:frequency of playing with the dog (≥3 times/week, <3 times/week) and frequency of family dog walking (≥1 time/week, <1time/week).

The parent-report version of the SDQ was used to measure children’s physical and social-emotional development as well as measures of physical health indicators, such as BMI, cardiovascular fitness, and motor skills. Logistic regression models were used, and analyses were conducted to examine associations between dog ownership, family dog walking, dog play, and children's social-emotional development or developmental delays, adjusting for socio-demographic factors such as parental demographics, maternal health-related quality of life, and environmental factors.
Results and Discussion
Among preschool-aged children, family dog ownership was associated with better physical and social- emotional development compared to children without dogs. Specifically, children from dog-owning households had reduced likelihoods of conduct problems, peer problems, and total difficulties, and increased likelihoods of prosocial behavior (Wenden et al., 2021). 

Moreover, within dog-owning households, family dog walking at least once a week and active play with the family dog three or more times a week increased the likelihood of prosocial behaviors. Children who walked with the family dog accumulated on average 29 min more physical activity per week than those without dogs. Children who have companion animals have been found to have better health outcomes, such as lower weight status and lower likelihood of obesity.



After adjusting for child age, sex, sleep and screen time and parent education, pre-schoolers from dog-owning families had reduced odds of having a poor total SDQ score, compared withpre-schoolers from non-dog-owning families (odds ratio (OR) =0.77; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.59, 0.99) (Table 2). Dog-owning pre-schoolers also had 30% reduced odds of having conduct problems (OR = 0.70; 95% CI: 0.54, 0.90) and peer problems (OR = 0.60; 95% CI: 0.46, 0.79), compared with non-dog-owning pre-schoolers. Finally, pre-schoolers from dog-owning families had significantly increased odds of having an“above-average” score on the prosocial behaviors sub-scale,compared with non-dog-owning pre-schoolers (OR = 1.34; 95%CI: 1.06, 1.68).
 
Our model estimates that, annually, the presence of family dogs could prevent 5.3% of 1.5 million children from experiencing social-emotional difficulties, translating to a reduction from 46% to 41% in the prevalence of these difficulties. This represents a relative risk reduction of 11%. These findings underscore the potential impact of pet ownership on early childhood development and highlight the importance of considering pets as part of family environments in policies aimed at promoting children's physical well-being. By recognizing the role of pets in fostering physical and social-emotional competence in young children, policymakers can better support families in nurturing healthy developmental trajectories from an early age.


Adapted From: 
Wenden, E.J., Lester, L., Zubrick, S.R. et al. The relationship between dog ownership, dog play, family dog walking, and pre-schooler social–emotional development: findings from the PLAYCE observational study. Pediatr Res 89, 1013–1019 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-020-1007-2 https://rdcu.be/dFVLq 



Source B

Introduction
Many children around the world grow up with pets, particularly dogs, in their households. This study aims to investigate the potential effects of pet ownership, specifically dog ownership, in shaping various aspects of children's psychosocial development among third to sixth graders from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds.
Participants
We conducted our study with a total of 130 kids from grades 3 to 6. Among them, 65 were pet owners and 65 were not. We made sure to match them based on factors like parental marital status, family income, and the number of siblings they have. Of the participants, 65 were boys (50%) and 65 were girls (50%). There were 30 third graders (23.1%), 30 fourth graders (23.1%), 30 fifth graders (23.1%), and 40 sixth graders (30.8%). Additionally, 75 kids (57.7%) came from urban areas, while 55 kids (42.3%) were from rural areas. We had a diverse group from different backgrounds to get a better understanding of how pets might affect them.
Methods
The study incorporated a comprehensive approach, gathering data from various interviews and questionnaires completed by participants, which provided insights into parental demographics, child characteristics, autonomy, self-concept, self-esteem, and attachment to animals. Rigorous matching procedures were employed to ensure comparability between pet owners and non-pet owners.

We used the Ages and Stages Questionnaire-3rd Edition (ASQ-3). Family dog ownership status was categorized into groups including "never," "past only," "always," and "current only" based on the presence of a dog at different time points. Logistic regression models were then utilized to examine the association between family dog ownership and developmental delays in children, while adjusting for various covariates such as parental demographics, maternal health-related quality of life, and environmental factors.
Results and Discussion
The findings suggest that pet ownership, particularly dog ownership, may contribute to positive outcomes in various domains of child development. Across all age groups, pet ownership was associated with higher levels of autonomy, self-concept, and self-esteem, particularly during the transition to adolescence. Furthermore, the study revealed that family dog ownership during early childhood was linked to a decreased risk of developmental delay in multiple domains, including communication, gross motor skills, problem-solving, and personal-social skills. Adult social competency and positive self-concept may be related to childhood animal ownership when it occurs prior to 6 years of age or after 12 years of age.

We observed that children with “ever” family dog ownership showed a significantly decreased risk of developmental delay in the communication (odds ratio [OR] = 0.87; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.78, 0.96), gross motor (OR = 0.83; 95% CI: 0.76, 0.92), problem-solving (OR = 0.89; 95% CI: 0.83, 0.96) and personal-social (OR = 0.86; 95% CI: 0.72, 0.92) domains compared to children with “never” family dog ownership. In addition, a decreased risk of developmental delay in the problem-solving domain was associated with “past” family dog ownership (OR = 0.87; 95% CI: 0.79, 0.97). Given the possible positive association between early life child development and family dog ownership, living with dogs may be an important factor to be considered when assessing child development. These findings underscore the multifaceted impact of pets on preadolescent psychosocial development and highlight the importance of considering pet ownership as a factor in assessing child development. While further research is needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and address methodological limitations, the study suggests that interactions with pets, particularly dogs, may contribute to favorable developmental outcomes in children across different developmental stages.




Adapted from Van Houtte, Beth A., and Patricia A. Jarvis. "The Role of Pets in Preadolescent Psychosocial Development." Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, vol. 16, no. 3, 1995, pp. 463-479. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0193397395900306?via%3Dihub

Minatoya, Machiko et al. "Association between Early Life Child Development and Family Dog Ownership: A Prospective Birth Cohort Study of the Japan Environment and Children's Study." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 18, no. 13, 2021, article 7082. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18137082.
Source C

Introduction
While qualitative (anecdotal) evidence often suggests positive outcomes associated with pet ownership, empirical research examining its impact on children's psychological and physical development is limited. Some studies that have investigated the correlation between pet ownership and mental well-being did not find a clear relationship or even worse, negative effects of pet ownership- such as lower psychological well-being, depression, and anxiety compared to Non-Pet Owners (NPOs). 

The inconsistencies in the literature and limitations of these studies warrant a thorough exploration of the effect of pet ownership on mental health outcomes among large, diverse population samples.
Participants
From a total of 320,971 participants  from around the world completed questionnaires about their pets and their well-being, 10,233 were children and adolescents, 79,108 adults, and 2,308 were old adults. Most participants were American (59 percent), Spanish (19 percent), or Canadian (11 percent). Participants were surveyed on pet characteristics (e.g., whether they owned a pet, number of pets, types of pets, their pet-human relationship) and their own personality (e.g., attachment style, Big 5 personality traits). Families were predominately middle-to-upper-middle class, with (33%) mothers having some college education, (21%) having a college degree, and  (19%) having completed high school. Employment data for the mothers showed that (34%) worked full time, (32%) were unemployed, and (32%) worked part-time.
Methods
Measures of well-being included subjective well-being, purpose in life, positive and negative affect, stress, loneliness, and depression. In addition, the researchers asked one open-ended question (“If you want to say a few words about how having pet(s) has been helpful (or not) to you, please feel free to do so here”) which they coded qualitatively. After the interview, the mothers completed self-report surveys to assess children’s anxiety, activity level, health status, and pet ownership status.
Results and Discussion
While some studies report positive associations between pet ownership and mental health, a significant portion of research indicates otherwise. Specifically, in a review of 54 studies, only 31% found a positive relationship, while 9% found negative associations (Anyo et al., 2002). Additionally, pet owners tend to report lower perceptions of health and higher disease prevalence than non-pet owners, potentially contributing to a lower quality of life. Moreover, concerns regarding physical health risks associated with pet ownership, such as dog bites and transmission of diseases, are notable. Estimates suggest that dog bites result in approximately 855,000 medical consultations annually in the US, with another 3.6 million more experiencing non-medically treated bites. Furthermore, dog attacks lead to approximately 30 deaths per year in the U.S. Additionally, animals can transmit diseases through direct contact or bodily secretions, posing risks to human health (Anyo et al., 2002). Humans are also susceptible to immunologic responses to animals as a result of allergies, asthma, or hypersensitivity pneumonitis. 

They explain that there may be too many other variables involved in people’s well-being aside from the presence of a pet and that there are both pros and cons of owning pets. The researchers found that income and full-time employment were closely linked with the likelihood of owning a pet. This association between pet ownership and children's health may be confounded by disparities in family income, as family income often serves as a key predictor of children's overall health status. Therefore, the observed connections between pet ownership and children's health outcomes may be influenced by this confounding variable, complicating the assessment of whether pet ownership directly influences children's health.




Although costs were rarely mentioned in some studies, they helped to explain why pet ownership isn’t necessarily predictive of greater well-being.  In the same way that parenting can be stressful due to worrying about a child's health, safety, and normal development, pet owners can experience a similar source of stress. For example, participants sometimes felt guilty about not being able to spend more time with their pets. Others felt stressed from cleaning up after their pet, or worrying about their pet's health (both reasons why so many pets are abandoned or given up for adoption, unfortunately). The most frequently mentioned costs were negative emotions such as guilt (6 percent), death/loss/separation (4 percent), interference with work (2 percent), cleaning up after pets (2 percent), worsened health such as from worry and lack of sleep (2 percent). 

Pet death was also a common childhood experience, with a substantial proportion (63%) of children having lost a pet during the first seven years of life. The sense of grief for a lost pet can take a psychological toll. Case reports and empirical studies have found that compared to adults, children’s grief responses to a pet’s death can be profound, and can have greater intensity and duration. We found that these experiences of pet death were associated with elevated psychopathology symptoms. (Examples of psychopathology include phobias, depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder). This association was observed even after accounting for other adverse factors known to increase child risk for poor mental health, such as low socioeconomic status, maternal history of depression, and exposure to child abuse. 

Our study results suggest that pet death may be traumatic for children and that children who have pets may show signs of mental health difficulties if their pet dies. Especially when children are attached to their pets, parents and other caregivers may find it beneficial to recognize children’s short- and long-term psychological reactions, which may mimic responses to the loss of other important human attachments.

The results indicated that for the most part, pet ownership did not predict well-being. Whereas qualitative responses were overwhelmingly positive, quantitative associations between pet ownership and well-being were near zero. Yes, there were a few small associations between dog ownership and well-being, such that dog ownership predicted greater life satisfaction, purpose in life, positive affect, and lower depression, but the researchers also speculate that hedonic adaptation may play a role, as pets may initially bring greater happiness, but later, people get used to their pets and return to their baseline emotions. The researchers concluded that people think that pets make them happier, but that is not necessarily the case.

**Side note: this source is a confirmation bias compilation of multiple sources to pose the alternative viewpoint. 

Adapted from Chopik, W. J., Oh, J., Weidmann, R., Weaver, J. R., Balzarini, R. N., Zoppolat, G., & Slatcher, R. B. (2023). The Perks of Pet Ownership? The Effects of Pet Ownership on Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672231203417. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/01461672231203417

Scoresby KJ, Strand EB, Ng Z, Brown KC, Stilz CR, Strobel K, Barroso CS, Souza M. Pet Ownership and Quality of Life: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Vet Sci. 2021 Dec 16;8(12):332. doi: 10.3390/vetsci8120332. PMID: 34941859; PMCID: PMC8705563. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8705563/